Food And Nutrition

Essential Nutrients

While the animal body can synthesize many of the molecules required for function from the organic precursors, there are some nutrients that need to be consumed from food. These nutrients are termed essential nutrients, meaning they must be eaten, and the body cannot produce them.

The omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid and the omega-6 linoleic acid are essential fatty acids needed to make some membrane phospholipids. Vitamins are another class of essential organic molecules that are required in small quantities for many enzymes to function and, for this reason, are considered to be coenzymes. Absence or low levels of vitamins can have a dramatic effect on health. Both fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins must be obtained from food. Minerals are inorganic essential nutrients that must be obtained from food. Among their many functions, minerals help in structure and regulation and are considered cofactors. Certain amino acids also must be procured from food and cannot be synthesized by the body. These amino acids are the “essential” amino acids. The human body can synthesize only 11 of the 20 required amino acids; the rest must be obtained from food.

Water-Soluble Essential Vitamins
Vitamin	Function		Deficiencies Can Lead To			Sources
Vitamin B₁ (Thiamine)	Needed by the body to process lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates; coenzyme removes CO₂ from organic compounds		Muscle weakness, Beriberi: reduced heart function, CNS problems			Milk, meat, dried beans, whole grains
Vitamin B₂ (Riboflavin)	Takes an active role in metabolism, aiding in the conversion of food to energy (FAD and FMN)		Cracks or sores on the outer surface of the lips (cheliosis); inflammation and redness of the tongue; moist, scaly skin inflammation (seborrheic dermatitis)			Meat, eggs, enriched grains, vegetables
Vitamin B₃(Niacin)	Used by the body to release energy from carbohydrates and to process alcohol; required for the synthesis of sex hormones; component of coenzyme NAD⁺ and NADP⁺		Pellagra, which can result in dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death			Meat, eggs, grains, nuts, potatoes
Vitamin B₅(Pantothenic acid)	Assists in producing energy from foods (lipids, in particular); component of coenzyme A		Fatigue, poor coordination, retarded growth, numbness, tingling of hands and feet			Meat, whole grains, milk, fruits, vegetables
Vitamin B₆(Pyridoxine)	The principal vitamin for processing amino acids and lipids; also helps convert nutrients into energy		Irritability, depression, confusion, mouth sores or ulcers, anemia, muscular twitching			Meat, dairy products, whole grains, orange juice
Vitamin B₇(Biotin)	Used in energy and amino acid metabolism, fat synthesis, and fat breakdown; helps the body use blood sugar		Hair loss, dermatitis, depression, numbness and tingling in the extremities; neuromuscular disorders			Meat, eggs, legumes and other vegetables
Vitamin B₉(Folic acid)	Assists the normal development of cells, especially during fetal development; helps metabolize nucleic and amino acids		Deficiency during pregnancy is associated with birth defects, such as neural tube defects and anemia			Leafy green vegetables, whole wheat, fruits, nuts, legumes
Vitamin B₁₂ (Cobalamin)	Maintains healthy nervous system and assists with blood cell formation; coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism		Anemia, neurological disorders, numbness, loss of balance			Meat, eggs, animal products
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)	Helps maintain connective tissue: bone, cartilage, and dentin; boosts the immune system		Scurvy, which results in bleeding, hair and tooth loss; joint pain and swelling; delayed wound healing			Citrus fruits, broccoli, tomatoes, red sweet bell peppers
Fat-Soluble Essential Vitamins
Vitamin		Function		Deficiencies Can Lead To	Sources
Vitamin A (Retinol)		Critical to the development of bones, teeth, and skin; helps maintain eyesight, enhances the immune system, fetal development, gene expression		Night-blindness, skin disorders, impaired immunity	Dark green leafy vegetables, yellow-orange vegetables, fruits, milk, butter
Vitamin D		Critical for calcium absorption for bone development and strength; maintains a stable nervous system; maintains a normal and strong heartbeat; helps in blood clotting		Rickets, osteomalacia, immunity	Cod liver oil, milk, egg yolk Produced by skin when it comes in contact with sunlight.
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)		Lessens oxidative damage of cells and prevents lung damage from pollutants; vital to the immune system		Deficiency is rare; anemia, nervous system degeneration	Wheat germ oil, unrefined vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, grains
Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)		Essential to blood clotting		Bleeding and easy bruising	Leafy green vegetables, tea

Minerals and their Function in the Human Body
Mineral	Function	Deficiencies Can Lead To	Sources
*Calcium	Needed for muscle and neuron function; heart health; builds bone and supports synthesis and function of blood cells; nerve function	Osteoporosis, rickets, muscle spasms, impaired growth	Milk, yogurt, fish, green leafy vegetables, legumes
*Chlorine	Needed for production of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach and nerve function; osmotic balance	Muscle cramps, mood disturbances, reduced appetite	Table salt
Copper (trace amounts)	Required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase; cofactor for hemoglobin synthesis	Copper deficiency is rare	Liver, oysters, cocoa, chocolate, sesame, nuts
Iodine	Required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones	Goiter	Seafood, iodized salt, dairy products
Iron	Required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin, to prevent anemia	Anemia, which causes poor concentration, fatigue, and poor immune function	Red meat, leafy green vegetables, fish (tuna, salmon), eggs, dried fruits, beans, whole grains
*Magnesium	Required cofactor for ATP formation; bone formation; normal membrane functions; muscle function	Mood disturbances, muscle spasms	Whole grains, leafy green vegetables
Manganese (trace amounts)	A cofactor in enzyme functions; trace amounts are required	Manganese deficiency is rare	Common in most foods
Molybdenum (trace amounts)	Acts as a cofactor for three essential enzymes in humans: sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidase, and aldehyde oxidase	Molybdenum deficiency is rare
*Phosphorus	A component of bones and teeth; helps regulate acid-base balance; nucleotide synthesis	Weakness, bone abnormalities, calcium loss	Milk, hard cheese, whole grains, meats
*Potassium	Vital for muscles, heart, and nerve function	Cardiac rhythm disturbance, muscle weakness	Legumes, potato skin, tomatoes, bananas
Selenium (trace amounts)	A cofactor essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidase; trace amounts are required	Selenium deficiency is rare	Common in most foods
*Sodium	Systemic electrolyte required for many functions; acid-base balance; water balance; nerve function	Muscle cramps, fatigue, reduced appetite	Table salt
Zinc (trace amounts)	Required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, and carbonic anhydrase	Anemia, poor wound healing, can lead to short stature	Common in most foods
*Greater than 200mg/day required

FACTS RELATED TO FOOD AND NUTRITION

Fats are composed of long chain fatty acids and glycerol.
Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Proteins are composed of amino acids. They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Proteins build muscles and used by body builders.
Proteins are present in muscles, bones, and tissues.
Hormones are made of proteins. Enzymes are made of proteins.
Enzymes are biological catalysts. They speed up the biochemical reactions in the body.
Man can survive without food for more than three weeks.
Man can survive without water for almost three days.
Preservatives are used to prevent food from decaying. they preserve food and keep it fresh for a time period. Vinegar is one of the preservatives.
There is zero cholesterol in egg white. But cholesterol level in egg yolk is very high, about 211 mg.
57% of proteins in egg are present in egg white and 43% in yolk.
Milk contain 87% water.
The number of calories in fats is highest.
Vegetables have lowest calories.
The fat content of milk reduces to great extent when it is skimmed
Protein are present in meats, sea food, beans and legumes, eggs, nuts, and dairy products.
Carbohydrates are present in bread, wheat, fruits in the form of fructose or sucrose, potatoes in the form of starch, sugary items, starchy vegetables, etc.
Fats are present in certain foods including eggs, meat, dairy products, nuts, etc
Whole grain wheat flour has 11% protein.
Instant energy is given by carbohydrates.
Fiber is the non digestible part of the food. It helps in preventing constipation.
Green vegetables are good source of vitamins and minerals.
Yeast rises bread in the bread production. It converts larger starch molecules into smaller sugar molecules through the process of fermentation. Ethanol and carbon dioxide are produced in this process.
Calorie is the unit of energy in food items.
Honey contains fructose and glucose. Fruits contain fructose. Normal sugar has sucrose in it.
Milk has lactose in it.
Fat content is highest in ghee.
Energy value of fats and oils is 2.25 times more than carbohydrates and proteins.
1 gram of carbohydrate has 4 calories.
1 gram of fat has 9 calories.
1 gram of protein has 4 calories.
Wheat has about 13% protein, 71% carbohydrate and 1.5% fat.
Bananas, pineapple, grapes, mango, apples have high carbohydrate content.
There is zero cholesterol in egg white. But cholesterol level in egg yolk is very high.
Sulphur is present in leafy green vegetables, fish, chicken, eggs, nuts, legumes, chickpeas, etc.

Sciences and Their Subjects of Study

Acarology, the study of ticks and mites
Actinobiology, the study of the effects of radiation on living organisms
Actinology, the study of the effect of light on chemicals
Aerobiology, a branch of biology that studies organic particles, such as bacteria, fungal spores, very small insects and pollen, which are passively transported by the air.
Aerology, the study of the atmosphere
Aetiology, the medical study of the causation of disease
Agnoiology, the study of things of which we are by nature ignorant, or of things which cannot be known
Agrobiology, the study of plant nutrition and growth in relation to soil conditions
Agrology
Canada: the art and science of agriculture
Non-Canada: the study of soils
Agrostology, the study of grasses
Algology, the study of algae
Allergology, the study of the causes and treatment of allergies; a branch of medicine
Andrology, the study of male health and disease
Anesthesiology, the study of anesthesia and anesthetics; a branch of medicine
Angelology, the study of angels
Angiology, the study of the anatomy of blood and lymph vascular systems
Anthropology, the study of humans
Apiology, the study of bees (apiaries)
Arachnology, the study of spiders and their kind
Archaeology, the study of past cultures through the analysis of material remains
Archaeozoology, the study of relationships between humans and animals over time through examination of animal remains at archaeological sites (also see Zooarchaeology)
Areology, the study of Mars
Assyriology, the study of the Assyrians
Astacology, the study of crayfish
Asteroseismology, the study of the internal structures of stars as revealed by sound waves (see also Helioseismology).
Astrobiology, the study of origin of life
Astrogeology, the study of geology of celestial bodies (e.g., planets, asteroids, comets)
Astrology, the study of the purported influence(s) of celestial bodies on earthly affairs
Atmology, the study of the laws and phenomena of aqueous vapors
Audiology, the study of hearing; a branch of medicine
Autecology, the study of the ecology of any individual species
Auxology, the study of human growth.
Axiology, the study of the nature of values and value judgements

Bacteriology, the study of bacteria
Balneology, the scientific study of baths, bathing and of their application to disease
Bioclimatology, the study of the effects of climate on living organisms
Geomorphology, or ecogeomorphology, the study of interactions between organisms and geomorphological processes
Bioecology, the study of the relationship of organisms to each other and to their environment
Biology, the study of life
Biometeorology, the study of the effects of atmospheric conditions on living organisms
Biotechnology industrial use of living organisms or their components to improve human health and food reduction
Boxology is the study of schematic layouts, for example of corporate org charts.
Bryology, the study of bryophytes

Campanology, the study and the art of bell ringing
Cardiology, the study of the heart
Cariology, the study of cells
Cereology, the study of crop circles
Cetology, the study of cetaceans – whales, dolphins, and porpoise
Characterology, the study of character
Christology, the theological study of redemption (christos > christein: to sacrament), not only speaking of Christianity but also extended to religion in general
Chorology, the study of the relationship of biological or other phenomena to their locations
Chronology the study of things in order of time or the study of time
Climatology, the study of the climate
Codicology, the study of the preparation of books and manuscripts (ink, paper, vellum etc)
Coleopterology, the study of beetles
Coniology, the study of dust in the atmosphere and its effects on plants and animals, also spelled “koniology”.
Conchology, the study of shells and of molluscs
Cosmology, the study of the cosmos or our place in it.
Cosmetology, the study of cosmetics and their use.
Craniology, the study of the characteristics of the skull
Criminology, the scientific study of crime.
Cryology, the study of very low temperatures and related phenomena.
Cryptology, the study of how to encrypt and decrypt secret messages
Cryptozoology, the study of animals that may or may not be mythical
Cynology, the study of dogs
Cytomorphology, the study of the structure of cells
Cytology, the study of cells

Deltiology, the study of, but more often the collecting of picture postcards
Demonology, the study of demons
Dendrochronology, the study of the age of trees and the records in their rings
Dendrology, the study of trees
Deontology, in ethics, the study of duty.
Dermatology, the field of medicine that deals with the skin
Dermatopathology, the field of dermatological anatomical pathology
Desmology, the study of ligaments
Dialectology, the study of dialects
Dipterology, the study of flies

Ecclesiology, the study of Church architecture and decoration, or separately the study of the Christian Church
Ecogeomorphology, or geomorphology, the study of interactions between organisms and geomorphological processes
Ecohydrology, the study of interactions among organisms and the water cycle.
Ecology, the study of the interrelationships between living organisms and their environment. Sometimes spelled “œcology”.
Ecophysiology, the study of the interrelationship between an organism’s physical functioning and its environment
Edaphology, a branch of soil science that studies the influence of soil on life.
Egyptology, the study of the ancient Egyptians
Electrophysiology, the study of the relationship between electric phenomena and bodily processes
Embryology, the study of embryos
Emetology, the study or knowledge of emetics
Endocrinology, the study of internal secretory glands
Enigmatology, the study of puzzles
Enology (or Oenology), the study of wine and winemaking
Entomology, the study of insects
Enzymology, the study of enzymes
Epidemiology, the study of the origin and spread of diseases
Epistemology, the study of the nature and origins of knowledge
Escapology, the practice of escaping from restraints or other traps.
Eschatology, a branch of theology concerned with the final events in the history of the world or of mankind
Ethnology, the study of race
Ethnomusicology, the study of music in society, usually non-western music
Ethology, the study of animal behaviour
Etiology, same as Aetiology
Etymology, the study of word origins
Eulogy, the speech of praise
Evolutionary biology, the study of the process of biological evolution
Evolutionary psychology, the study of the process of (usually) human psychological evolution.
Exobiology, the study of life in outer space

Felinology, the study of cats
Fetology, the study of the fetus, especially when within the uterus. Sometimes spelled foetology.
Formicology, the study of ants
Fungology, fungus + -ology, see mycology.

Garbology – study of refuse and trash
Gastrology or Gastroenterology- diseases of stomach and intestines
Gemmology or Gemology, the study of gemstones and ornamental materials
Genealogy (commonly misspelled and mispronounced as “genealogy”), the study of relationships within families particularly with a view to constructing family trees
Gynecology, the study of genetic differences in relation to the environment
Geobiology, the study of the biosphere and its relations to the lithosphere and atmosphere.
Geochronology, the study of the age of the Earth
Geology, the study of the Earth, describes the rocky parts of earth crust and its historic development.
Geomorphology, the study of present-day landforms, traditionally on Earth but with increasing frequency on nearby planetary objects
Gerontology, the study of old age
Glaciology, the study of glaciers
Grammatology, the study of writing systems. Also the study of deconstructive literary criticism, popularized in the 1960s by Jacques Derrida
Graphology, the study of handwriting for the purpose of analysing the character of the writer
Gynaecology or Gynecology, the study of medicine relating to women, or of women in general

Hematology/Haematology, the study of blood
Heliology, the study of the Sun
Helioseismology, the study of vibrations and oscillations in the Sun
Helminthology, the study of parasitic worms.
Hepatology, the study of the liver; a branch of medicine
Herbology, the study of the therapeutic use of plants
Herpetology, the study of reptiles and amphibians
Heterotopology, the study of true bugs.
Hippology, study of horses
Histology, the study of living tissues
Histopathology, the study of the (microscopic) structure of diseased tissues
Historiology, the study of the writings and practices of historians
Horology, the study of making timepieces, measuring time and timekeeping (also the study of time)
Hydrogeology, the study of underground water
Hydrology, the study of water
Hypnology, the study of sleep

Ichthyology, the study of fish
Ichnology, the study of fossil footprints, tracks and burrows
Immunology, the study of the immune system
Islamology, the study of the Islam

Japanology, the study of Japanese people

Karyology, the study of karyotypes (a branch of cytology)
Killology, the study of human beings killing other human beings (Grossman’s theory)
Kinesiology, the study of movement in relation to human anatomy; a branch of medicine
Kremlinology, the study of the Soviet Union
Kymatology, the study of waves or wave motions

Laryngology, the study of the larynx, or voice box; a branch of medicine
Lepidopterology, the study of butterflies and moths
Lexicology, the study of the significance and application of words
Limnology, the study of freshwater environments, particularly lakes
Lithology, the study of rocks
Ludology, the study of video games
Lymphology, the study of the lymph system and glands

Malacology, the study of mollusks
Mammalogy, the study of mammals
Mereology, a branch of logic focusing on the study of part-whole relationships
Meteorology, the study of weather
Methodology, (properly) the study of methods
Metrology, the study of measurement
Microbiology, the study of microorganisms.
Micrology, the science of preparing and handling microscopic objects for study.
Mineralogy, the study of minerals
Mixology, the study or skill of preparing mixed drinks.
Molinology, the study of windmills, watermills and animal engines.
Monadology, a book by Leibniz on the study of his theory of monads.
Morphology, the study of forms that is used in several other fields (biology, linguistics, astronomy, etc.)
Musicology, the study of music
Mycology, the study of fungi
Myology, the scientific study of muscles
Myrmecology, the study of ants
Mythology, the study of myths

Nanotechnology, the study and design of machines at the molecular level
Nanotribology, the study of friction at very small (atomic) scale
Nematology, the study of nematodes
Neonatology, the study of diseases and the care of newborn infants; a branch of pediatrics/paediatrics
Nephology, the study of clouds
Nephrology, the study of the kidneys and their diseases, a branch of medicine
Neurology, the study of nerves
Neuropathology, the study of neural diseases
Neurophysiology, the study of the functions of the nervous system
Nosology, the study of disease classification
Numerology, the study of numbers (often in a non-mathematical sense)

Oceanology, the study of oceans
Odonatology, the study of dragonflies and damselflies
Odontology, the study of the structure, development, and abnormalities of the teeth
Oenology, the study of wine
Omnology, the study of everything
Oncology, the study of cancer
Oneirology, the study of dreams
Ontology, the study of existence
Oology, the study of eggs
Ophthalmology, the study of the eyes
Organology, the study of musical instruments (not just organs; alternatively, the study of anatomical organs
Ornithology, the study of birds
Orology, the study of mountains and their mapping
Orthopterology, the study of grasshoppers and crickets
Osteology, the study of bones
Otolaryngology, the study of the ear and throat; a branch of medicine
Otology, the study of the structure, function, and pathology of the ear
Otorhinolaryngology, the same as otolaryngology

Paleontology, the study of ancient creatures
Paleoanthropology, the study of ancient humans and human origin
Paleoclimatology, the study of climate prior to the widespread availability of records of temperature, precipitation, and other instrumental data
Paleoecology, the study of past environments using the fossils of plants and animals
Palynology, the study of pollen
Parapsychology, the study of paranormal or psychic phenomenon that defy conventional scientific explanations
Parasitology, the study of parasites
Pathology, the study of illness
Pedology (soil study)
Pedology (children study)
Penology, the study of prison management and criminal rehabilitation.
Personology, a variant of physiognomy
Petrology, the study of rocks
Pharmacology, the study of drugs
Phenology, the study of periodic biological phenomena such as flowering, migration, breeding, etc.
Phenomenology, the study and science of phenomena as distinct from the science of actual existence or being; also a movement founded by Husserl which studies conscious experience without its metaphysical concerns
Phlebology, a branch of medicine that deals with the venous system
Phonology, the study of vocal sounds
Phrenology, the derivation of a person’s character traits, by studying the shape of their skull
Phycology, the study of algae
Physiology, the study of bodies, usually of animals
Phytology, the study of plants; botany
Planetology, the study of planets and solar systems
Planktology, the study of plankton
Pneumology, a synonym of Pulmonology
Pomology, the scientific study and cultivation of fruits
Primatology, the study of primates
Psychobiology, the study and psychology of organisms with regard to their functions and structures
Psychology, the study of mental processes in humans
Psychopharmacology, the study of psychotropic or psychiatric drugs
Psychophysiology, the study of the physiological bases of psychological processes
Pulmonology is the specialty in medicine that deals with diseases of the lungs and the respiratory tract.

Radiology, the study of rays, usually ionising radiation
Reflexology, originally the study of reflexes or of reflex responses; but see also non-study list
Rheology, the study of flow
Rheumatology, the study of rheumatic diseases, a branch of medicine
Rhinology, the study of the nose and its diseases
Ripperology, the study of Jack the Ripper and the crimes associated with him

Sarcology, a subsection of anatomy that studies the soft parts. It includes myology, angiology, neurology, and splanchnology
Scatology, the study of feces
Sedimentology, a branch of geology that studies sediments.
Seismology, the study of earthquakes
Selenology, the study of the moon
Semiology the study of signs
Serology, the study of blood serum
Serpentology, the study of snakes
Sexology, the study of sex
Sindonology, the study of the Shroud of Turin
Sinology, the study of China
Sitiology, dietetics, the study of diet. Also, a treatise on diet. Also spelled “sitology”
Sociology, the study of society
Sociobiology, the study of the effect of evolution on ethology
Somnology, the study of sleep, also: hypnology
Somatology, study of human characteristics
Soteriology the study of the doctrine of salvation, especially as related to Christianity
Sovietology, the study of communist Soviet Union
Speleology, the study or exploration of caves
Sporalogy, a parody of astrology
Stemmatology, a discipline that attempts to reconstruct the transmission of a text (especially a text in manuscript form) on the basis of relations between the various surviving manuscripts
Stomatology, study of the mouth and its diseases.
Sumerology, the study of the Sumerians.
Symbology, the study and interpretation of symbols, or a set of symbols. Also used for types of barcodes
Symptomatology, the study of symptoms
Synecology, the study of the ecological interrelationships among communities of organisms

Taxology, a synonym for taxonomy
Technology, the study of the practical arts (but see above)
Teleology, the study of ends or final causes
Teratology, the study of wonders, or monsters
Terminology, the usage and study of terms.
Thanatology, the study of physical, psychological and social problems associated with dying.
Thermology, the study of heat.
Theology, the study in religion
Tocology, the study of childbirth, sometimes spelled “tokology”.
Tonology, the study of intonation in speech
Topology, the mathematical study of closeness and connectedness
Toxicology, the study of poisons
Traumatology, the study of wounds and injuries caused by accidents or assaults and their surgical treatment and repair; a branch of medicine
Tribology, the study of friction and lubrication
Trichology, the study of hair and scalp
Typology, the study of classification

Urology, the study and treatment of diseases of the urogenital tract, a branch of medicine. Sometimes spelled “urology”.
Ufology, the study of Unidentified flying object (UFO) phenomena.

Vaccinology, the study of vaccines
Venereology, the study of venereal diseases
Vexillology, the study of flags
Victimology, the study of victims of crime, often applied to characterizing the criminal
Virology, the study of viruses
Volcanology (also spelled volcanology), the study of volcanoes and related phenomena (traps)

Xenobiology, the study of non-terrestrial life
Xylology, the study of wood

Zooarchaeology, the study and analysis of animal remains at archaeological sites to reconstruct relationships between people, animals, and their environment (also see Archaeozoology)
Zoology, the study of animals
Zymology, the study of fermentation

Scientific Instruments and Appliances

Altimeter is a special type of aneroid barometer, used in measuring altitudes.
Ammeter is an instrument to measure the strength of an electric current.
Anemometer is an instrument to measure the velocity and find the direction of the wind.
Audiometer is an instrument to measure differences in hearing.
Barometer is used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
Binocular is an optical instrument designed for magnified view of distant objects by both eyes simultaneously.
Calorimeter is an instrument for measuring quantities of heat.
Chronometer is a clock to determine the longitude of a vessel of sea.
Clinical Thermometer is a thermometer for measuring the temperature of the human body.
Calorimeter is an instrument for comparing intensities of colour.
Commutator is an instrument to change or reverse the direction of an electric current. In dynamo used to convert the alternating current into direct current.
Computer is a technical device designed to find instantaneous solutions of huge and complex calculations based on the information already fed.
Dynamo is a device for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Electroscope is an instrument for detecting the presence of electric charge.
Galvanometer is an instrument for measuring electric current.
Hydrometer is an instrument for measuring the relative density of liquids.
Hydrophone is an instrument for measuring sound underwater.
Hygrometer is an instrument for measuring the relative humidity of the atmosphere.
Hygroscope is an instrument to show the changes in atmospheric humidity.
Lactometer is an instrument for measuring the relative density of milk.
Micrometer is an instrument used for accurately measuring small distances or angles.
Manometer is an instrument to measure the pressure of gases.
Magnetometer is an instrument used to compare the magnetic moments and fields,
Mariner’s Compass is an apparatus for determining direction, graduated to indicate 33 directions. The “N” point on the dial indicates the North Pole and the “S” point, South Pole.
Microscope is an instrument for magnified view of very small objects.
Periscope is an apparatus for viewing objects lying above the eye level of the observer and whose direct vision is obstructed. It consists of a tube bent twice at right angles and having plane mirrors at these bends inclined at angles of 45 to the tube.
Photometer is an instrument for comparing the luminous intensity of the sources of light.
Planimeter is a mechanical integrating instrument to measure the area of a plane surface.
Pycnometer is an instrument used to measure the density and coefficient of expansion of liquid.
Pyrheliometer is an instrument for measuring solar radiations.
Pyrometers are thermometers to measure high temperatures.
Quadrant is an instrument for measuring altitudes and angles in navigation and astronomy.
Quartz clock is a highly accurate clock used in astronomical observations and other precision work.
Radio micrometer is an instrument for measuring heat radiations.
Rain gauge is an instrument for measuring rainfall.
Refractometer is an instrument used to measure the refractive index of a substance.
Resistance thermometer is used for determining the electrical resistance of a conductor.
Salinometer is a type of hydrometer used to determine the concentration of salt solutions by measuring their densities.
Seismograph is an instrument used for recording the intensity and origin of earthquake shocks.
Scotograph is an instrument used to write without seeing anything or in darkness. It aids blind people to write.
Screw gauge is used to measure size, length, or diameter of the object but cannot measure internal diameter.
Sextant is an instrument used for measurement of angular distances between two objects.
Spectroscope is an instrument used for spectrum analysis.
Spectrometer is a type of spectroscope so calibrated to make it suitable for the precise measurement of refractive indices.
Spherometer is an instrument used for accurately measuring the curvature of spherical objects.
Sphygmomanometer is an apparatus for measuring blood pressure.
Spring balance is used to measure the mass of a body. It is preferred only when quick but approximate determinations are to be carried out.
Stereoscope is an optical device to see two dimensional pictures as having depth and solidity.
Stethoscope is a medical instrument for hearing and analyzing the sound of heart and lungs.
Stroboscope is an instrument used for viewing the objects moving rapidly with a periodic motion and to see them as if they were at rest.
Tangent galvanometer is an instrument for measuring the strength of direct current.
Telemeter is an apparatus for recording physical events happening at a distance.
Teleprinter is a communication medium for automatic sending, receiving and printing of telegraphic messages from distant places.
Telescope is an instrument for viewing distant objects as magnified.
Television is an instrument used for transmitting the visible moving images by means of wireless waves.
Thermometer is an instrument to measure the temperature.
Thermoscope is used for measuring the temperature change (approximately) of the substances by noting the corresponding change in volume.
Thermostat is an automatic device for regulating constant temperatures.
Transistor is a small device which may be used to amplify currents and perform other functions usually performed by a thermionic value.
Vernier is an adjustable scale with marking of 10 sub-divisions of one-tenth of an inch or any other suitable marking for measuring small sub-divisions of scale. Vernier calipers is used to measure length or diameter. It can also measure internal diameter of the cylinder.
Viscometer is an instrument for measuring the viscosity, i.e. the property of resistance of a fluid to relative motion within itself.
Voltmeter is an instrument to measure potential difference between two points.

Important Laws and Principles

Archimedes Principle: The buoyant force on an object equals the weight of the fluid it displaces. In equation form, Archimedes’ principle is

FB=wfl,size 12{F rSub { size 8{B} } =w rSub { size 8{“fl”} } } {}

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Where FG size 12{F rSub {size 8{B} } } {} is the buoyant force and wfl size 12{w rSub { size 8{“fl”} } } {} is the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. Archimedes’ principle is valid in general, for any object in any fluid, whether partially or totally submerged.

Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules.

Black Body Radiation: A black body absorbs heat or radiates heat more quickly than any other body.

Boiling Point: It increases with the increase of pressure. It is the point at which the atmospheric pressure and pressure of the liquid becomes equal. At lower atmospheric pressure, liquid boils at lower temperature. That’s why boiling point of water is lower at higher altitudes.

The presence of impurities also raises the boiling point of a liquid.

Centre of Gravity: A body will remain at rest only if the vertical line through the centres of gravity passes through the base of support of the body.

Coulomb’s Law: The force between the two electric charges reduces to a quarter of its former value when the distance between them is doubled.

Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis: The amount of chemical change during electrolysis is proportional to the charge passed. The masses of substances liberated or deposited by the same quantity of electric charge are proportional to their chemical equivalents.

Law of Conservation of Matter: The law of conservation of matter summarizes many scientific observations about matter: It states that there is no detectable change in the total quantity of matter present when matter converts from one type to another (a chemical change) or changes among solid, liquid, or gaseous states (a physical change).

First Law of Thermodynamics: The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of a system equals the net heat transfer into the system minus the net work done by the system. In equation form, the first law of thermodynamics is

ΔU=Q−W

Lenz’s Law: When an electric current is induced by a change in magnetic field, the induced current is always in such a direction that its magnetic field opposes the change of field which causes the induction.

Mass – Energy Equation: E = mc2, where E = quantity of energy released from the annihilation of matter of mass ‘m’, c = velocity of light. It implies that mass and energy are interchangeable.

Newton’s Law of Cooling: The rate at which a body cools or loses its heat to its surroundings is proportional to the excess of mean temperature of the body over that of the surroundings, provided this temperature excess is not too large.

Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation: Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force along a line joining them. The force is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Newton’s Laws of Motion:

First Law: A body at rest remains at rest, or, if in motion, remains in motion at a constant velocity unless acted on by a net external force. It is also called law of inertia.

Second Law: The acceleration of a system is directly proportional to and in the same direction as the net external force acting on the system, and inversely proportional to its mass.

Third Law: Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the first body experiences a force that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that it exerts.

Ohm’s Law: The current that flows through most substances is directly proportional to the voltage Vsize 12{V} {} applied to it.

Rectilinear Propagation of Light: Light travels in a straight line. Total internal reflection takes place when a ray of light tries to pass from a denser medium to a rarer medium at an angle of incidence more than the critical angle.

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Food And Nutrition

FOOD AND NUTRITION

Water-Soluble Essential Vitamins

Fat-Soluble Essential Vitamins

Minerals and their Function in the Human Body

FACTS RELATED TO FOOD AND NUTRITION

Ikram Malik